Egypt and Russias Political Systems Comparison

Egypt and Russias Political Systems Comparison Introduction The end of the Cold War was a pivotal moment in history of democratization, since it opened up a possibility of a successful spread of democratic ideals across the globe/at the global level. In this context, a range of scholars predicted that countries, previously known for their totalitarian or authoritarian past, would undergo a process of gradual democratization, which will result in their eventual adaptation of a democratic polity model as the fundamental element of their political systems(). However, almost three decades since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the question of whether democratization process had achieved any meaningful progress remains open, since many states had either retained their centralized political system or had adopted a mixed and hybrid political system, characterized by a unique combination of democratic and authoritarian elements within a single polity (Levitsky and Way, 2002; Haerpfer, 2009; EDI, 2010). In order to understand why states had reacted differently to the democratization process, this paper aims to identify similarities and differences in the way political systems are organized in two states, Egypt and Russia, which throughout their modern history were associated with highly centralized and authoritarian form of polity. Although it is possible to identify multiple similarities and differences between these states, this paper will focus attention on four important aspects, namely centralized and authoritarian state model, presidential style of government, limited political pluralism during elections and important role of political culture as an effective obstacle to countrys democratization. This paper is structured as follows. It starts with a brief introductory section, which will define term political system and will explain the case selection. The main body analyses four important aspects of political system in Egypt and Russia, mentioned above. The concluding section summarizes the main arguments. Political System and Case Selection Although the term political system has no universally accepted definition, in context of this paper it refers to a socio-political arrangement of institutions and agencies concerned with formulating and implementing the collective goals of a society or of groups within it ( Almond, et all., 2009:29; Powel, et all., 2015:24). From this perspective, it includes both formal institutions, such as parliamentary assemblies, governments and executives, but also informal arrangements, such as political culture, history, traditions and dominant norms in any given society (Powel, et. all, 2015:24). The paper relies on the deployment of the most similar comparative research design, which aims to explain similarity or divergence in the policy outputs by comparing cases with similar elements and aspects. In this context, whilst it is important to emphasize important differences between Egypt and Russia, some of which will be discussed below, it is equally important to acknowledge that these states share several common characteristics. Historically, political systems in both states were traditionally resistant to change and democratization, focusing instead on preserving the stability of the existing power configuration. Institutionally, Egypt and Russia are interesting cases for a thorough analysis, since despite the fact that democratic organizations and arrangements continue to exist in both states, the power is located elsewhere with traditional democratic organizations enjoying minimal role in decision-making process (). Geopolitically, following the end of the Cold War, both states were required to redefine their identity and find themselves a suitable position within a new geostrategic balance, heavily dominated by US unipolarity. Having defined term political system and justified the case selection, the next section of the essay will distinguish similarities and differences in the way political systems are organized in Egypt and Russia. Authoritarian and centralized state model. Traditionally, the power distribution within Egyptian and Russian political system was highly uneven, with ultimate power for decision-making process placed in the hands of a powerful national leader, supported by several elite groups, who was able to impose his political programme on society through mixture of coercion and consent. This gradually resulted in a popular acceptance of the principle of patrimonialism, defined as the idea that country is considered almost as a private property of a specific ruler, within Russian and Egyptian political societies with very weak levels of trust in democratic institutions (Hopwood, 1991; Remington, 2009). From this perspective, opposition forces had minimal chances of challenging and restricting the authority of the national leader, since they were often viewed either as an unnecessary distraction from maintaining an overall political stability or as open enemies of the regime, which by weakening the power of the governing elite can endanger an overall wellbeing of the society. The situation changed to a certain extent after the end of the Cold War, when both Egypt and Russia, under increasing IMF and US pressure, undertook a series of reforms, including encouraging the creation of political parties, providing more powers to legislative assemblies and allowing more competitive elections in order to democratize political systems with a varying degree of success. In case of Egypt, the reform programme was aimed at strengthening countrys reputation at the international level, whilst retaining and consolidating existing power configuration. In this context, despite multiple changes in political system, country still remains a military dictatorship with strong repressive and authoritarian elements, whereby, where all primary power mechanisms belong to a current national leader, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, backed by a mixed coalition of military elites and local bureaucracy (Freedom House, 2016; Osman, 2011; Cambains, 2015). In contrast, the majority of political reforms did achieve a considerable degree of success in Russia, particularly taken into consideration the minimal levels of democracy and freedom of political expression, which country experienced during Soviet times (Bova, 2003; Sakwa, 2009; Lucas, 2008). Nonetheless, according to Remington (2009:358), although the political elites in Russia are interested in retaining and upholding existing democratic arrangements, they often resort to indirect and hidden mechanisms of exercising dominance within such institutions. For instance, although opposition parties are officially allowed to exist and compete during national elections, the multiplicity of rules and regulations regarding party electoral registration make it extremely difficult for smaller opposition to compete and win sufficient number of electoral seats (Lucas, 2008). Likewise, the National Electoral Commission received immense legal mandate, allowing it to disqualify and remove unwanted alternative parties and candidates from ballot for the alleged violations of electoral procedures (Lucas, 2008; McFaul and Petrov, 2004). In this context, although parties may be vocal and critical during electoral campaign period, the majority of parties that receive parliamentary seats have strong incentive to cooperate, rather than criticise the governing party once in parliament (Sakwa, 2008; Lucas, 2008).

African Diaspora Essay -- essays papers

African Diaspora The study of cultures in the African Diaspora is relatively young. Slavery and the trans-Atlantic slave trade brought numerous Africans, under forced and brutal conditions, to the New World. Of particular interest to many recent historians and Africanists is the extent to which Africans were able to transfer, retain, modify or transform their cultures under the conditions of their new environments. Three main schools of thought have emerged in scholarly discussion and research on this topic. Some argue that there are no significant connections between Africans and African American communities in the Americas. Others argue that Africans retained significant aspects of their cultures. Similar to this argument, some have argued that Africans, responding to their new environments, retained and transformed African cultures into new African-American ethnic units. Detailed research done on slave communities in Surinam, South Carolina and Louisiana allow us to look deeper into the stated arguments. Having recently addressed the same issues using Colonial South Carolina as a case study, I will focus largely on some of the arguments and conclusions drawn from this study. The evidence from South Carolina, Louisiana and Surinam supports the second and third arguments much more than the first. The third argument, that of cultural transformation, is the argument I find to be most valid. John Thornton's analysis of this issue is extremely helpful. He addresses the "no connections" arguments in chapters 6, 7 and 8. He outlines the claims made by scholars Franklin Frazier, Stanley Elkins, Sidney Mintz and Richard Price. Frazier and Mintz believe that the extreme trauma and disruption experienced by Africans during the process of enslavement and the middle passage minimized the possibility that they maintained aspects of their cultures in the new world. They argue that this process "had the effect of traumatizing and marginalizing them, so that they would became cultural receptacles rather than donors" (152). Mintz and Price have argued the slave trade had the effect of "permanently breaking numerous social bonds that had tied Africans together..." (153). Another element of the "no connections" argument claims that Africans did not receive enough associational time with each othe... ... capacity. The use of poison as a form of rebellion is visible in both the examples from Colonial South Carolina and Jamaica. Cases of death by poison in Colonial South Carolina leading up to the Stono Rebellion led to its inclusion in the Negro Act of 1740. The Act made poisoning a felony punishable by death. In conclusion, both significant African retentions and transformations took place in the early European settlement of the Americas. More recently, there has been a tendency to overemphasize or even romanticize the "Africanisms." While acknowledging "Africanisms" did make their way into the Americas, I find the evidence from accounts of early slave cultures and the Anthropological background provided by Thornton on cultural transformation and change persuasive in suggesting the formation of Afro- American rather than "Afro-centric" communities. This approach to the slavery and the slave era is relatively young and will have to be developed. A conclusion that is clear after studying works of Peter Wood, Gwendolyn Hall and Richard Price, is that the early arguments suggesting no connection of African heritage to the Americas are entirely invalid.

McCarthy :: essays research papers

While I cannot take the time to name all of the men in the State Department who have been named as members of the Communist party and members of a spy ring, I have here in my hand a list of 205 that were known to the Secretary of the State as being members of the Communist party and who nevertheless are still working and shaping the policy of the State Department. (Bayley, 1981,p.17) This story is held responsible for sparking the McCarthyism era. The incidents following it, represent a journalistic period paralleled to the Christian views of the Spanish Inquisition; a time period of branded embarrassment and horror never to be forgotten. Later McCarthy said the number he gave in his speech was not 205 but 57. The fact is that Desmond had a written copy of the speech before McCarthy gave it, but he could have changed the number to 57 when he actually presented the speech. Regardless, the number 57 would have been just as shocking as 205. The reporter's ethics and/or practices were questionable in handling this story. Why he did not ask to see the list of 205 Communists? If he did, history may have been different, for as McCarthy said himself "what he held in his hand was the Byrnes letter, not a list."(Bayley, 1981, p.24) If Desmond had reported that McCarthy was holding a letter, not a list, the newspapers would have handled the story much differently. A letter from one person to another, which suggests unfit employees, would have made much less news than the illusion of an actual list of names. This lack of verification, was one of many press blunders that followed over the next few weeks. In general the press' poor practice would be carried out for the next five years. "I have here in my hand,..." was a phrase that "became more popular than a famous toothpaste slogan,"(Belfrage, 1973, p.117) which he used on an infinite number of occasions to refer to documents he would pull from his briefcase to support wild accusations. The legitimacy of the documents much like that of the accusations seemed never to have been verified by the reporters on sight. The Byrnes's letter that McCarthy pulled out on February 9, 1950 was one of these unchecked documents. The content of the letter gives us insight into McCarthy's ability to manipulate the facts, and cover his tracks just enough so that an unambitious, negligent reporter would help him spread his word. The letter from which the number 205 is extracted is dated 26 July 1946, from Secretary of State James F.

Classical Music Essay -- Music Musical Classical Essays

Classical Music n : traditional genre of music conforming to an established form and appealing to critical interest and developed musical taste [syn: serious music] Classical music, as the name suggests, is a well-established kind of music, at least in the West. Classical music concerts take place in every cultural center, and they take many forms, from a solo to large symphonic orchestras, from a sonata to an opera. This kind of music has many fans, especially among circles of intellectuals. But how did this great kind of music start? What made the great composers compose? And how was this all used before the time of recorded music and portable mp3 players? These are the questions we are going to examine today. Music historians place the beginnings of classical music in Europe during the 1730s, though there is not a clear cut-point, since it gradually evolved from the Baroque style that was dominant before. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach and Christoph Willibald Gluck are considered to be the founders of classical music. But what triggered this new kind of music? Ask a physicist, and the answer is quite clear: The new ideas of "natural philosophy", proposed in the late 17 th century by Sir Isaac Newton, suggested that the universe has a clear structure, well founded in axioms, articulated and orderly. These ideas were reflected in the music of the 18 th century, but also in architecture, literature, and the arts in general. This new style in the arts is referred to as "Classicism". Back in those days, music was not as common as it is now. One could not carry thousands of songs in one's pocket. Music was rather a privilege of the royalty and their court. For example, one of the most impor... ... it can be heard in parks, parking lots, train and underground stations. It can be found even in the pockets of people carrying mp3 players around. Young people listen to it, old people listen to it, babies listen to it. Classical music is not only a kind of music; it's a way to concentrate, to relax, to worship. Classical music is a way of life. Sources http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music_era http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Newton.html http://www.classical.net/music/links/musiclnk.html http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/422644.stm http://www.freenewmexican.com/artsfeatures/10701.html http://www.healingproducts.com/sound_health_series.htm#concentration http://www.freenewmexican.com/artsfeatures/10701.html http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/clipserve/B000001GDR001001/0/104-1287315-5901551

Eulogy for Daughter :: Eulogies Eulogy

Eulogy for Daughter I would like to thank you all for coming to Arlyn's funeral. I am truly touched that you care enough to show your support for us and your respect for Arlyn this way. During the past few days, many of our friends and family have come to our home to show their love for us and for Arlyn. I have been especially moved by the fact so many of her teachers and principals have shown up and cried with us. I am also touched by the love her young friends had for her. Our memories of this sad time in our lives will therefore not all be bad. But now, I would like to talk with you a little about my daughter, Arlyn Maria Johnson, who was born on Wednesday January 12, 1980 at Archbold Memorial Hospital in Thomasville, the most beautiful little girl I had ever seen. On Wednesday, August 7th, Arlyn ate lunch at home, acting normally. I noticed she didn't eat a lot, but it was no big deal. Afterwards, she showed us a dress she had bought, presumably to wear in Misty Smith's wedding. Then, Arlyn said she wanted to go visit friends and left the house. A few minutes later, 3 miles from our home, Arlyn held a rifle to her head and pulled the trigger. She left no note. How does a child who seemed to have everything going for her end up this way? Arlyn had a family that loved her infinitely. She was beautiful and intelligent; her sense of humor was remarkable. Arlyn was kind, a friend to anyone who would let her into his or her life. She had a part-time job as a waitress at Quincy's, which she enjoyed. Arlyn had accepted admission to Tulane University in New Orleans and the week before she died, she shared her schedule of fall courses with me enthusiastically. I reviewed these facts over and over in my mind, trying to discover why she would not see how lucky she was, but I could not find an answer. From the time she was a little girl, Arlyn has brought joy and laughter into the lives of others. When she was little, she sucked her thumb. She was nurturing; she carried her teddy bear with her everywhere. One of her greatest pleasures was dressing up in beautiful long dresses; she dreamed of being Miss America one day.

A Career as an Adoption Counselor Essay examples -- Career Research

Adoption is a process where by a person assumes the parenting for another and, in so doing, permanently transfers all rights and responsibilities from the biological parent or parents. Unlike guardianship or other systems designed for the care of the young, adoption is intended to effect a permanent change in status and as such requires societal recognition, either through legal or religious sanction. Adoption has changed considerably over the centuries with its focus shifting from adult adoption and inheritance issues toward children and family creation; its structure moving from recognition of continuity between the adopted and kin toward allowing relationships of lessened intensity. In modern times, adoption is a primary vehicle serving the needs of homeless, neglected, abused and runaway children (Wikipedia, â€Å"Adoption†). Child, Family, and School Social Worker make average annual earnings of $38, 280. The employment of such social workers is expected to grow by twenty percent between 2012 and 2020, per the BLS (â€Å"Adoption†). Some counselors find that because adoption touches on so many family issues, it evolves naturally out of a more general practice. A difficult prejudice that adoption counselors face is the perception that they are baby stealers or baby sellers. A birth mother may require help making the difficult decision to give a child up for adoption. Many adoption counselors are social workers who have come to focus on adoption because they have had a personal experience with adoption (â€Å"CFNC.org†). This is somewhat the case in my situation. My parents were about to start the adoption process when my mom found out that she was pregnant. For Glory To, the most difficult time is when placement doesn’t wor... ...heir own kids, they shouldn’t panic, they may be able to adopt! Works Cited "Adoption Caseworker: Job Description and Education Requirements." Education-Portal.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Feb. 2014. "CFNC.org - Career Profile." CFNC.org - Career Profile. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Feb. 2014. "IVCC - Illinois Valley Community College." IVCC - Illinois Valley Community College. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Feb. 2014. "IVCC Sociology and Anthropology." IVCC Sociology and Anthropology. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. "McKendree University." Marching Bearcat Band. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Feb. 2014. "McKendree University." McKendree University. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Feb. 2014. "The Process." California Kids Connection. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. Wikipedia contributors. "Adoption." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 10 Feb. 2014. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

Crime And Punishment Dream Ana Essay -- essays research papers

Dreams of Good and Evil   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dreams are windows into peoples sub conscience and their true emotions and gives important clues to emotional disturbances. Sigmund Freud, the first person to systematically study dreams, said that desires are revealed in the form of dreams. Freud said that dreams gratify those desires which that a person would never express while awake. Psychiatrists today tend to view dreams as attempts to solve problems rather than as the fulfillment of unconscious desires. Whatever dreams are, they gratify a physiological and psychological need of humans. In Crime and Punishment, Raskolinov manifests guilt itself in a dream in which Ilya Petrovich mercilessly beats his landlady. This dream is a vision into Raskolinov’s emotional disturbances and signifies resentment and fear.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Raskolinov’s dreams are continual conflicts between his dark and hateful mind and his conscience. His mind drives him to murder and inflates his ego to make him feel as an â€Å"extraordinary man.† On the other hand, his conscience struggles to hinder these violent motives. Raskolinov’s mind is at battle with itself in a conflict of morals and corruption that is manifested into the dream of the mare. Dostoevsky uses the dream as evidence of Raskolinov’s psychic illness. Raskolinov can be identified as all of the characters in his dream: Mikolka, the jeering crowd, the beaten horse, and the innocent child. Raskolinov’s confusion and obvio...